Darius moves behind Alexander
Darius crosses the Amanus and reaches Issus north of the Macedonian army. Alexander turns back towards him: the campaign front reverses.
Battle
Issus
November 333 BC
A forced return to a constricted bank, a local breakthrough and a king's flight
Military history
How does Alexander win on one wing while his centre is at risk of giving way?
In 333 BC, Darius moves behind Alexander, who turns back to fight him at Issus. Between sea and mountains, the Persian army has little room to deploy. Alexander crosses the Pinarus on his right, but his centre is in difficulty. The victorious wing’s turn and Darius’s flight decide the battle.
A coast too narrow for full deployment
The sea and the Amanus foothills limit the available width. The Pinarus protects the Persian line, but its banks also complicate the Macedonian crossing.
Numbers are not enough
Reconstructions of the Macedonian army range from just over 30,000 to about 47,000 men. The enormous Persian totals in ancient accounts remain disputed.
Victory opens the road south
Alexander needs to preserve his army and access to Syria. Darius seeks to stop the invasion; losing the battle does not yet deprive him of all the empire’s resources.
Explore
Chronological dossier
GranicusHow do the Macedonians establish a foothold beyond a river defended by Persian cavalry?Siege of TyreIn 332 BCE, Tyre refuses Alexander entry to its island city. The Macedonian mole comes under fire and is attacked by a fireship. The arrival of allied fleets changes the siege: the harbours are blockaded, siege engines reach the walls by sea, and a combined assault eventually captures the city after seven months of resistance.GaugamelaHow does Alexander reach Darius without losing his army on the wings and in the rear?HydaspesHow does Alexander force a crossing, then face Porus’s elephants?
Military history
Sources
Ancient primary source, scholarly translationArrien, Anabasis Alexandrou, traduction E. J. Chinnock
Livre II, 2.6.1-2.12.1; édition en ligne, chapitres VI-XII, avec les passes et le retour d'Alexandre, l'ordre sur le Pinaros, le franchissement, la crise du centre, la fuite de Darius et la poursuite.
Operational chronology, Arrianic order of battle, crossing of the bank, interactions among the wings and center, immediate consequences and constraints on casualty figures.
View ↗Ancient primary source, scholarly translationDiodore de Sicile, Bibliothèque historique XVII.34, traduction C. Bradford Welles
Livre XVII, 17.34.2-7; extrait traduit consacré à l'approche d'Alexandre, au combat autour du char, à la blessure d'Alexandre et à la fuite de Darius.
A second ancient narrative tradition, set against Arrian on the king's flight rather than merged with his tactical sequence.
View ↗Specialist historical synthesisJona Lendering, The Battle of Issus (333 BCE)
Sections « Preliminary Movements », « Date », « Darius' Decision to Fight », « Battle Arrangements » et « Macedonian Maneuvers »; passages sur les passes, les effectifs macédoniens, la plaine côtière, le Pinaros, les ailes et l'après-bataille.
Campaign context, alternative date, topographical reconstruction and general sequence of deployments and movements.
View ↗Specialist academic articleNicholas G. L. Hammond, Alexander's Charge at the Battle of Issus in 333 B.C.
Historia 41.4 (1992), pp. 395-406; surtout pp. 395-400 sur le Pinaros, Callisthène et les chiffres, pp. 401-405 sur l'ordre des unités, le franchissement et la nature de la charge.
Critique of numerical and propagandistic claims, Hammond's case for identifying the Payas, debate over the infantry Guard versus cavalry and the cohesion of the phalanx.
View ↗Specialist study of terrain and historiographyKathleen D. Toohey, The Pinarus River, Chapter 4 of The Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great, Part II
Chapitre 4, version en ligne, lignes 240-299 et 343-382 sur les distances, les effectifs et la largeur disputée; lignes 415-494 et 518-527 sur les berges, la géomorphologie et les limites de l'inférence; conclusion aux lignes 560-564.
Comparative topography, relational mapping, changes in the watercourses and limits of reconstructing the Pinarus.
View ↗