Battle of the Somme

1 July — 18 November 1916

From the gamble on breakthrough to organised attrition

Military history

How did an offensive designed to break the front become a battle of attrition and combined-arms learning?

The Somme did not begin with the men leaving their trenches on 1 July. It arose from a Franco-British plan for breakthrough devised before Verdun, then reduced and accelerated by the French haemorrhage there. A week of fire was to destroy wire, dugouts and artillery; its effect nevertheless varied sharply with gun density, shell quality, terrain and the depth of the works. In the north, British units advanced towards defences still in action; in the south, the British and French took several objectives. For four months, each side committed reserves, altered its methods and turned villages, ridges and woods into successive strongpoints. Tactical learning occurred, but it did not convert these gains into an operational breakthrough.

A plan predating Verdun

At Chantilly in December 1915, the Allies planned coordinated offensives for 1916. The Somme was to unite a large French force with a still-growing British army. Verdun then absorbed French divisions and artillery: the British sector widened, while Joffre rejected a long postponement because the battle also had to loosen the grip on the Meuse.

Two conceptions of the offensive

Haig retained the prospect of a deep breakthrough; Rawlinson favoured a more limited advance under artillery protection. The compromise combined extensive objectives with a massive bombardment without everywhere resolving the relationship between prior destruction, infantry speed and the arrival of reserves.

A heterogeneous front

North of the Albert–Bapaume road, deep works, slopes and wire still intact favoured the German defence. Farther south, British artillery was denser; before the French Sixth Army, the preparation was more concentrated still and German fortifications less developed. A single assault time therefore produced several battles.

A battle of competing adaptations

The Allies progressively narrowed their objectives and better coordinated artillery, aircraft and infantry. The Germans abandoned some of the overconcentration in the front line, multiplied shell-hole positions, strongpoints, immediate counterattacks and depth. Each side learned under fire; neither had enough time, surprise and fresh reserves to impose the tempo alone.

Explore

Chronological dossier

Battle · 26 — 30 August 1914TannenbergThe Germans strip the north, strike Samsonov's two wings separately, then close the roads through Neidenburg, Passenheim and Willenberg around his centre.Battle · 19 February 1915 — 9 January 1916Gallipoli CampaignMines halt the naval gamble; separate landings remain contained below the ridges, then deception enables the evacuation of Anzac, Suvla and Helles.Battle · 21 February–18 December 1916VerdunThe German concentration opens the right bank but does not take Verdun; reliefs, artillery and the Sacred Way stabilise both banks, then the October and December offensives recapture Douaumont, Vaux and most of the eastern gains.Battle · 31 May — 1 June 1916Battle of JutlandHipper draws Beatty towards Scheer, then Beatty leads the pursuit back onto Jellicoe; two unfavourable deployments force Scheer to disengage through battle turns, smoke and torpedoes, before a night escape saves his fleet without loosening the blockade.Battle · 4 June — 20 September 1916Brusilov OffensiveFour armies prepare several sectors and open the Austro-Hungarian front together; when reserves belatedly concentrate towards Kovel, the Stokhid, German reinforcements and lengthening supply lines exhaust the exploitation.Battle · 24 October — 12 November 1917CaporettoThree coordinated penetrations through Plezzo, the Isonzo valley and the ridges shatter the IV and XXVII Corps, then the pursuit drives the Italian army back to the Piave.Battle · 20 November — 7 December 1917CambraiPredicted fire, tanks and infantry break through without announcing the assault; attrition, the bridges and Bourlon close the exploitation window, then a more effective German counter-offensive in the south forces the British to shorten the salient.Battle · 8 — 12 August 1918AmiensThe Allies combine tanks, artillery, aviation and infantry to break German defences before they can be rebuilt.

Military history

Sources

Contemporary official historyC. E. W. Bean, Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, volume III, chapitre VIII

Chapitre VIII, « The Plan of the Somme Offensive », p. 219–242 ; surtout p. 219–221 sur Chantilly et le projet franco-britannique, p. 227–228 sur Verdun, le report souhaité par Haig et le refus de Joffre

Genesis of the plan, initial division of roles, Verdun's effect on the timetable and disagreement over the offensive's depth.