Reconfigured powers
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, kingdoms inherit roads, cities and military traditions which they no longer control everywhere with equal density.
Military history
Transformations of the period
The Middle Ages do not simply replace ancient battle with chivalry. Rulers seek to raise men, hold strongholds, control crossings and sustain an army far from its bases. Cavalry offers mobility and shock, but archers, pikemen, urban militias and engineers often determine a campaign’s real duration.
The castle structures the theatre
Fortifications make the seizure of ground slow and force armies to combine siegecraft, negotiation, supply and control of bridges.
Continental mobility
The Mongols show what a mobile, well-informed and coordinated army can do over great distances; their opponents learn to respond through depth, strongholds and cavalry.
Shock framed by firepower
Archers, crossbowmen, pikemen and early firearms make the charge less automatic and increase the value of prepared ground.
Explore
Chronological dossier
Hundred Years’ WarA succession of campaigns in which taxation, fortifications and missile weapons matter as much as chivalry.Arab Conquest of SyriaArab armies face Byzantine forces and their allies for control of Syria and its imperial roads.The 1187 Campaign for JerusalemSaladin unifies Muslim forces and confronts the Kingdom of Jerusalem over control of roads and strongholds.Mongol Invasion of the LevantThe Mongols take Baghdad and advance into Syria before encountering the organized resistance of the Mamluk Sultanate.AgincourtOn 25 October 1415, Henry V’s army, weakened after Harfleur, finds its road to Calais blocked. Between two woods, French attacks converge on the English archers and men-at-arms. Mud, missile fire and crowding compound one another. The English victory is followed by the execution of many prisoners.YarmoukIn 636, the imperial army tries to regain the initiative in Syria. Arab forces regroup, resist the attacks and exploit the separation of their opponents. In the reconstruction followed here, the capture of a crossing and the attack on the camp worsen the Byzantine retreat. The victory opens the way to further conquest in Syria.HattinOn 3 and 4 July 1187, the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem leaves the springs at Sepphoris to relieve Tiberias. Saladin slows its march and prevents it from reaching sufficient water. Fatigue, missile fire and disorder gradually separate the infantry from the cavalry. The capture of King Guy and the True Cross leaves the kingdom without most of its field army.Ayn JalutIn Galilee on 3 September 1260, Qutuz and Baybars face the army Hülegü left under Kitbuqa. Accounts describe a Mamluk withdrawal followed by attacks from several directions, but differ on the commanders and exact sequence. The fighting remains difficult before the Mongol defeat. The victory lets the Mamluks regain the initiative in Syria without ending their wars against the Ilkhanate.CrecyOn 26 August 1346, Edward III meets Philip VI’s army near Crécy. His men-at-arms fight on foot, supported by archers and troops in depth. The French arrive without coordinating their attacks. Their failure leaves the field to the English, who then move towards Calais.PoitiersOn 19 September 1356, John II catches the Black Prince near Poitiers. The Anglo-Gascons defend approaches narrowed by hedges and ditches. French attacks follow one another without lasting support. A counterattack eventually breaks the royal battle line and John II is captured.
Military history
Sources
Military overviewJohn France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300
Routledge, 1999 ; chapitres 2–3, 5–12 et 15
Mobility, fortifications, resources and the organization of medieval campaigns.
View ↗Specialist referenceDavid Nicolle, Medieval Warfare Source Book
Weapons, formations and regional contexts to compare with narrative sources.
General referenceThe Cambridge History of Warfare, chapitres médiévaux
Political and military transformations among Roman legacies, Islamic powers and European monarchies.